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1926—The New-Way Course in Fashionable Clothes-Making

Lesson 17—Textiles

The Story of Textiles

To tell the true story of textiles, we would have to go back before the time of man. For even before man inhabited this earth, the textile art flourished! Spiders wove intricate silken webs, patterning with infinite pains the filmy threads that were to form their home. Birds interlaced twigs and grass into cozy little nests, and even some types of trees and plants formed a sort of cloth by closely interweaving their inner fibers. These early attempts at weaving presaged the wonderful textile industry of today.

The very first cloth made by man was from the bark of a tree. The bark was soaked in water until soft and pulpy; then it was beaten with rough wooden mallets to felt the fibers together. The "cloth" was dried and bleached in the sun and finally ornamented with vegetable dye.

Being successful with this crude attempt at utilizing the bark of the tree for clothing, the people of that era began to search for other useful methods of weaving together bark and grass and twigs. Soon they discovered that rushes and grass could be interlaced to form little mats to sleep on, and that reeds and twigs woven together formed useful little baskets. They began to search for the finest twigs and rushes, the sweetest grass and reeds—and in their rude mats and baskets found a way to express their ideas of art and beauty.

Many museums today exhibit beautiful examples of primitive weaving. It is almost amazing to see how finely twigs and grass are woven together and how artistically colors are combined. Beautiful leaf and flower designs are in some cases evident. The method of achieving this design, by those early originators of the textile art, is interesting. A leaf or flower was placed on the dye covering the woven material, and this dye-covered material was then placed in the direct rays of the sun. The outline of the leaf or flower was transferred to the material by the sun and then a small rounded twig was used to press down the design more firmly, fixing the design in place.

Spinning

Silhouette of spinning wheelBut it was not until spinning and spinning-yarn were invented that the actual textile art began. For a great many years, it seems, there was no progress. The early men and women were content with their coarse "bark cloth" clothing—or with none at all. They were no doubt delighted with their baskets and mats and sought no further possibilities for weaving. But somehow the idea of using threads to be spun into materials was evolved—history does not tell how.

No one knows definitely the actual date of the origin of spinning, although a certain authority claims that it dates back before 2000 B.C. But to follow spinning through its gradual stages of development is as interesting as it is valuable to the student of dress.

Historians tell us that early nomadic tribes used threads to fasten together the skins which they used to protect them from the ravages of rain and cold. How they discovered thread is unknown. It is barely probably that wool torn from the sheep while passing through bushes or brambles, suggested the idea to them.

Soon after, we find that thread is wound upon a stick and spinning done by hand. Later this stick developed into the spindle, but until 1500 A.D. spinning was done entirely by hand. Women soon found that if a piece of wood was attached to the lower end of the stick, or spindle, it could be whirled around at a much greater speed. This weight at the end of the spindle came to be known as the whorl. And as a subsequent development the need of something to fasten the wool to so that it would not become ravelled brought the distaff. At first, it was simply a piece of twig or wood around which the wool was wrapped. It was held in the hand or tucked in the belt, as most convenient.

The Advent of Machinery

Spinning by hand was cumbersome, tedious and a very slow process indeed. Men—and women, too—began to look around for a more satisfactory method of weaving threads together into cloth. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, a one-thread machine was invented which was a tremendous stride ahead of the old by-hand methods. It enabled the spinner to produce about seven times more yarn than by the distaff and spindle. New improvements and new inventions were gradually made, until the making of cloth was taken entirely out of the hands of the women in the homes and spinning was relegated into the realms of the "old-fashioned."

But whether woman makes her own cloth or not, whether crude spinning wheels or modern machinery produce the cloth for things-to-wear, design and an artistic interpretation of beauty inherently are part of woman. And there is no reason why woman's natural love of expression should be stifled merely because huge and powerful machines today accomplish in a few minutes what took her primitive ancestors days and weeks and months. The fact that exquisite materials are made in tremendous quantities for her to choose from, should only serve as an incentive for her to create her own dresses and blouses, to interpret her beauty ideals in line and color and harmony.

But in order to be a wise and intelligent buyer of the materials that she wishes to transform into beautiful clothes, the woman must have a general understanding and a practical knowledge of fabrics. She should know the names and the qualities of the fibres used in the manufacture of cloths. She should know a little about the methods of production and preparation of these fibres. She should know something of the processes of weaving, of the value of different weaves, of the selection and uses of materials.

In these pages we will endeavor to familiarize you with the names of different textiles, their comparative values and their uses in the making of clothes. But first, let us tell you the interesting stores of cotton, wool, linen and silk.

Cotton

Woman using handloomThough the cheapest, cotton is the most important textile fibre. Its uses are manifold. More clothing is made from cotton than any other fibre in the world. As your own expert clothes-maker, you will probably purchase a great deal of cotton material and you will find the following story of cotton valuable in making your purchases.

The cotton plant is a shrub which rarely reaches a greater height than six feet. It grows in warm, humid climates; cotton-growing is one of the most important industries of the southern part of the United States. The cotton is picked as soon as it is ripened, and is separated from the seeds by a process known as ginning. Its fibres vary in length from one-half to two inches.

After cotton has been freed from the seed, it is baled and shipped to the cotton mills all over the world. At the mills, the bale of cotton starts upon its journey through various interesting processes until it finally emerges in the finished form the manufacturer wishes to sell it—cotton threads, cotton cloth, towels, laces and cotton underwear. But what we are most intimately concerned with is the transformation of baled cotton into cotton cloth.

The manufacture of cloth existed in Greece in the days of Homer. Though many modifications have come since those early days, the same three steps to the process of weaving remains—even in our most modern machinery. First there is shedding which means the lifting of certain warp threads through which the shuttle is passed. Picking means the passing of the shuttle through the threads, and battening implies the pressing of the woof thread against the preceding ones to make the cloth firm and even.

Cloth is made of threads which run lengthwise, called the warp threads; and of threads that run crosswise, called the filling or woof. Under the microscope the cotton fiber usually presents the appearance of a flat, slightly twisted ribbon, with thickened ends. It has less affinity for dyes than animal fibers, but makes up for this deficiency by being resistant to the action of moths and insects and by having a great power of heat conduction. Linen is the coolest material known, but cotton is a close second.

In choosing between two grades of the same type of cotton material always consider the wearing qualities of the materials in question. Very often, for the additional cost of a few cents a yard, three or even four times the amount of wear can be acquired. The firmness of the weave and the quality of the fiber should be carefully considered. Untwist one thread of the cloth and notice the length of the separate fibers. Remember that a long fiber indicates strength and excellent wearing qualities, while a short fiber indicates cloth that will not give long service. It is also well to remember, when purchasing cotton material, to select the greater widths as they can be cut to better advantage.

When cotton fiber has no luster of its own, it is often treated by a chemical process called mercerization after John Mercer. In 1844 he discovered that cotton can be given a high degree of lustre and at the same time strengthened by subjecting it to the chemical action of caustic alkali and a strong tension to prevent contraction. Mercerized cotton has a lustre not unlike that of linen.

Wool

Woman working large loomThe wool industry is so old that history cannot definitely trace it back to its origin. The early Greeks and Romans produced woolen fabrics of great beauty and firmness. As far back as the days of Homer, wool was manufactured in Greece. The Bible tells us of many famous men of long ago who tended sheep on the hillside at the same time that they wrote their immortal psalms. Alexander, when he journeyed to India, saw beautiful woolen shawls being made. Modern methods of textile manufacture have made wool fabric excellent for garments intended to give warmth and at the same time present a fashionable and attractive appearance. Wool is, indeed, one of the most practical materials known in garment construction.

Although the greatest source of wool is from sheep, other animals such as the llama, the alpaca, certain species of goats, and even the camel provide wool from which fabrics are made. However most of the wool on the market comes in the form of fleece wool from sheep, and is sorted according to quality and length of fiber. A carding machine cleans, separates and straightens the fibers and prepares the yarn for weaving.

Wool fiber is very soft, elastic and varies greatly in strength. As it is a poor conductor of heat it is extremely desirable for clothing. It can be dyed much more readily than any other fiber. Woolen materials are not always necessarily all wool. Very often, by blending new wool with shoddy, manufacturers are able to produce a woolen material that serves its purpose very well and that may be sold at a cost very much lower than would otherwise have been possible. Mixtures of wool and silk, wool and cotton, and wool and linen are not uncommon in the manufacture of textiles.

In selecting woolen materials, the design and weave of the fabric should be taken into consideration. Hold the cloth up to the light and you will be able to see the design clearly, and you will also be able to detect immediately any defects in the fabric. A close, twilled weave in woolen materials makes a firm material that will give excellent wear. Looser weaves do not wear or retain their shapes so well. Yet, it must also be borne in mind that the close weaves become shiny more quickly than those that are loose.

In good woolen fabrics, the dye is soft and even. Sharp, harsh colors, therefore, indicate a poor grade of material. It is always wisest to examine woolen materials in the full daylight without any artificial lights shining on the fabric. Listed elsewhere in this lesson are the names and uses of woolen materials used in the making of clothes. Study this list carefully; familiarize yourself with the names. You will find the information gleaned from this lesson very valuable when you have mastered clothes-making and you purchase materials in large quantities to make your own pretty clothes.

Linen

There is every indication in history that the value of flax as a source of linen was first discovered in Egypt. Linen mummy clothes of remarkable fineness of thread and evenness of weave have been discovered in old Egyptian tombs. Picture writings on the sides of the tombs prove that the industry flourished in that day. The sheep was held to be a sacred animal, according to the pictures, and flax plant represented the emblem of some sort of deity. Even the Bible tells us (Genesis 41:42) that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestments of fine linen.

But the linen industry was not confined to Egypt for any great length of time. It soon spread to Babylon, to Greece and to Rome. The use of linen in wearing apparel was as prevalent in Europe in the Middle Ages as cotton is universal in its use today. Even today, although cotton has largely replaced linen in the matter of cloth for wearing apparel, it can never be replaced as the ideal material for table covers, napkins, and other purposes where its lustre, excellent laundering qualities and smooth, fine texture make it peculiarly appropriate.

Linen is the bast fibre of the flax plant. It lies just under the outer bark of the flax plant. To separate the bast fibre from the rest of the plant is a long and tedious process and the weaving of linen is infinitely more difficult and complicated than the weaving of cotton.

Bleaching is one of the most important processes in the finishing of linen fibre. It may be bleached in the cloth or in the yarn, and is done by dew and sun. Sometimes chemicals are also employed, but unless great care is taken the texture of the fibers may be damaged. It is positively known that linen loses from twenty-five to thirty per cent in bleaching when chemicals are used. Probably this explains the tremendous difference in wearing propensities between the old home-spun and the modern machine-made linens.

Linen does not dye easily, nor does it retain color well. White linen always wears longer than colored linen. As dresses made of white linen will require a great deal of laundering, it is always wisest to purchase very good quality. Untwist one of the threads and pull it apart slowly and steadily. If the fibers remain stretched and pointed the linen is of good quality and will wear well.

The lustre of linen is retained as long as the fibre lasts. The absorptive power of this material is unusual, and some qualities of linen actually absorb water without feeling damp. It is for this reason that the fabric is so ideally adapted for use in making towels.

When purchasing linens, always rub between the fingers to remove the starch. Choose the fabric which is firm and heavy and with threads that are not too fine. Particular attention should be paid to the design in selecting table linens as large designs developed in long threads will wear very poorly. Always insist upon linens made with small designs showing shorter threads on the surface. Not only have they greater wearing qualities, but they are invariably prettier and more artistic.

Silk

The study of silk is especially interesting. Silks have a certain charm, a certain fascination that no other fabrics can boast. Since time immemorial silk has been the queen of materials—and the textile industry of today has interpreted this fabric in so many exquisite weaves and designs that one actually enjoys transforming it into charming blouses and dresses.

Historians tell us that the silk industry originated in China about 2700 B.C. It was not until the twelfth century that the industry was practiced in Italy, and in the century immediately following it spread to France. Japan very early became the center of great silk culture—and even today Japanese silks are noted for their fineness of texture and weave.

Silk fibre is a secretion emitted by the silk worm in the formation of a cocoon—the worm encloses itself in this cocoon before its transformation into a chrysalis. Most of the silk of commerce today is obtained from the cocoons of the mulberry silk worm which feeds on the leaves of the mulberry tree.

Of all the four fibers, silk is the smoothest and finest. It is extremely elastic. It may be reeled from cocoons in length from four hundred to one thousand and three hundred yards. It can be dyed more easily than cotton or linen and takes the highest lustre of the four fibers. In its finished state, it is undoubtedly the prettiest of all fabrics manufactured.

Under the microscope, silk fiber appears as a smooth, structureless filament, quite transparent and very regular in diameter. If seen under the microscope after the gum has been removed, it has a very high lustre. Silk is the strongest fiber known and can be stretched almost to twenty-five percent its original length, but weighting causes a decrease in both elasticity and strength. This weighting is often added to the raw silk to make the finished fabric appear heavier.

Silhouette of woman and man on hillside in breezeColoring is applied to silk either by yarn or piece dying, or by printing. Printed silks are very appropriate for making dresses, but if they are weighted they will not wear well and will probably crack if plaited or folded. To test silk for weighting, pierce with a rather thick pin. If a hole is left in the material, it contains weighting; if the threads merely spread apart and return to their original position when the pin is removed, the material is not weighted.

Textiles

The Process of Weaving (Illustration XVII-1)

Drawing of plain weaveWeaving is the interlacing of two threads at right angles to produce cloth. The warp is the lengthwise thread running with the selvedge. It is the thread put in the loom first to make the foundation of the cloth. The threads running across the cloth from one finished edge to the other are the woof threads. To make a good strong durable cloth the woof threads should be as strong as the warp threads.

The finished edge of the cloth formed by the woof threads turning back through the warp is the selvedge. In most materials the selvedge threads are more closely woven than the balance of the cloth. Before cloth is made into garments the selvedge should be cut off, as it makes a hard bulky seam, and it also shrinks more than the rest of the material when washed.

Plain, twill and satin weaves are the fundamental weaves. All other styles of weaving are developed from the combining of two or three of these.

The Plain Weave (Illustration XVII-2 and 3)

Close-up of plain weaveMost materials are made in the Plain Weave. Possibly 60% of all cotton and silk, 50% of all wool and 25% of linen materials are plain weave.

In the plain weave the woof thread runs under and over the warp, and the warp threads run over and under the next woof threads.

While the plain weave does not produce the strongest cloth most material is made this way as it is the least costly, less labor and raw material being used.

A Few Plain Weave Materials and Their Uses

Cotton